History: The Power of the Idea and the Idea of Power

Knowledge is Power by Tobias Higbie via Flickr

By Jeanne Belisle Lombardo © Copyright 2012 Center for Future Consciousness

Early on in Preface to History, Carl G. Gustavson refers to the philosopher George Santayana’s famous lines on the relevance of history.  He does so with good cause for his own underlying approach to history builds on Santayana’s message.  This becomes clearer if we extend the philosopher’s quote: “Progress, far from consisting in change, depends on retentiveness…when experience is not retained, as among savages, infancy is perpetual.  Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it…this is the condition of children and barbarians…”  When Gustavson says, “Our ideas seem to be drawn to the more primitive level by a mental force of gravity unless the person consciously assists the more complex and true explanations to gain the supremacy” (15), he extends Santayana’s warning. While Santayana exhorts us to leave childishness behind by first remembering history, Gustavson tells us that we must look at it with the eyes of an adult, that is, in a critical and more complex way.  We must leave behind the “childish and primitive mind.”  We must grow up.

To grow up in this sense involves first the ability to build with the obvious facts of history a frame of reference, and to apply to this picture principles such as causation, comparison and motivation.  It further requires the development of a historical perspective.  A key element in this endeavor is the increasing capacity to conceptualize duration in history. From duration, one builds to recognizing continuity – the flow and growth – of the narrative of history. When a person has developed this capacity, what Gustavson calls historical mindedness, she will exhibit the following characteristics, all aspects of a mature and critical thinker: a natural curiosity as to what underlies any historical event; looking to the past when seeking answers to present problems; recognizing forces dynamic in society; stressing the continuity of society; recognizing that society is, at the same time, undergoing change; approaching the subject with humility; and knowing that each situation and event is unique (7). It is only when historical-mindedness is developed that a person can hope to achieve the twofold purpose of history – to discover the origins of our society and culture, and to apply what we have learned to solving present problems.

Among the characteristics listed above, Gustavson focuses on the principles of change and continuity, causation, the uniqueness of historical events and the importance of recognizing forces dynamic in society.  Early on he lists six primary forces: economic, religious/spiritual, institutional/political, technological, ideological and the physical force as embodied in the military or police. In operation in all of these forces are two other driving forces – the idea and power.  In the following section, I will explore these last two forces more in depth and attempt to see how they are connected.

Ideas are subject to the historical principles of continuity and change, and causation.  Like everything else in history, ideas evolve and both shape and are shaped by other forces.  An example of each of the above is the way the earlier collectivism in Russia allowed the idea of socialism to thrive and be converted into a social movement, or how absolute power inherent in the divine right of kings was later transformed into the absolute power of the state.  Gustavson compares ideas to inventions in that ideas are a response to a particular set of social conditions and once germinated are open to modification and improvement (154). In the way an invention moves from the drawing board to its realization in the physical world, ideas move from the realm of speculation to the world of action.  They manifest themselves in “large scale action” such as social movements and institutions. They also frequently deviate from the search for truth to an instrument of power.

Among the large scale actions in which we see the power of ideas are those Gustavson highlights: The divine right of kings, democracy, socialism, progress, nationalism, liberalism and toleration. In our time we could add to these individualism, feminism, globalization, environmentalism, and the offshoots of individualism and democracy – human and animal rights, among others. In many of these arenas, the powerful idea became a tool that enabled certain groups to gain dominance. When the idea becomes rigid and crystallized, when it serves the purposes of a group as its primary function and substitutes loyalty to a cause for the search for truth, the idea crosses over into ideology and dogma.

Much could be said here of the ways ideas are transmitted and of the mechanism that transforms an idea into a tool of power or into an entire institution.  Gustavson uses the examples of the spread of nationalism and socialism to illustrate how this works (158, 159). I would like to focus, though, on what happens to ideas that become agents of power and the control of such ideas.  To do so, we first need to understand some of the operating factors at work in the force of power.

Gustavson defines four ways in which power is manifested:  Physical force, economic power, spiritual power, and technological power. Throughout the book, Gustavson illustrates these forms of power with a rich variety of examples from European history, and supplies us with a means to recognize them in periods and places not discussed in the book.  Gustavson’s example of the brute strength evident in the power of the feudal lord, is equally recognizable in what Winston Churchill called “the terrible 20th century”, the clanking of armor and hooves now replaced by the thunder of tanks and goose-stepping fascists. This same historical example supplies us with another look at how physical power is magnified by technological power. Reading a newspaper with even a cursory eye today must convey to the reader the role of economic power in a society as well and give pause to those who worry about the decline in the spiritual power of both our established religions (as with the scandals in the Roman Catholic Church) and our political ideals.  These four forms of power are everywhere evident and in constant interplay, with one at times dominating the scene to be replaced in the next instance by another.

Gustavson uses the example of European colonialism in Africa to illustrate the tremendous force of all four forms of power in combination.  It is difficult to look at any number of events in history and not find a similar combination at work.  The Spanish Conquest of Mexico with its superior physical force enabled by advanced technology (the horse and the gun,) the moral force of its religion, and the need on the part of the Crown to replenish its coffers, is but one example. It should be mentioned that forces can also work against the group; the Aztecs were disadvantaged by their belief that the god Quetzalcoatl, whose representations in art bore a striking resemblance to a mounted Spanish cavalier, would return at precisely the moment in history when Cortez arrived on the scene. Thus they were defeated not only by the power of the Spaniards’ spiritual idea of the supremacy of Catholicism, but also by their own belief in an idea whose time had passed.

While the physical form of power, brute strength, has been a continuing factor in the history of the world, Gustavson points out that there has been an evolution away from brute strength towards power wielded through political rights and associations. Gustavson sees the preservation of free associations as integral to the maintenance of a balance of power (195), the more so in light of the increasing power of the state and the changing nature of liberalism.  Building on Gustavson’s insight, I would add that the preservation of free associations also contributes to the free flow of ideas, a phenomenon very much in evidence in the history of the United States where associations in the form of private enterprise both fuel and feed off of the flow of ideas.  The capitalist system, relying as it does on competition, could not function without it.

In making his point about the importance of free associations, Gustavson commented about the changing nature of liberalism. Where a liberal once fought for freedom from governmental controls, Gustavson argues that the liberal now increasingly looks to the government to achieve necessary measures (193).  Gustavson’s example suggests that it is possible for the meaning of ideas to change.  Could there be any connection between the level of power an idea attains, (and hence its move towards institutionalization,) and its ultimate corruption?  In this case when liberalism moved away from the philosophical realm into the world of institutions, it changed, as did socialism and nationalism, both of which experienced a gross distortion into fascism.   In our current age, we might look at what is becoming of the idea of progress.  Progress has come under attack in the last half century and serves as a good example of the way an idea changes meaning in light of evolving social forces and developments in the body of knowledge.  An environmentalist today has a very different idea of progress from that held by an industrialist a century ago. Perhaps it is the nature of the powerful idea, like the powerful nation, to reach a zenith and then decline.  And if it is true that power corrupts, we should not be surprised then that that what gives ideas power also opens them up to corruptibility.

How are we to recognize a powerful idea? Gustavson makes the point that rigid control of an idea is an indication of its power. He further believes that “…the persistence of rigid controls…is an indication that …control of ideas is not wholly possible” (195). The Cold War struggle of ideas would bear this out.  Gulags could not stop the spread of the ideas of democracy, individualism and freedom nor could persecution and witch hunts during the McCarthy years deter intellectuals in Western Europe and the United States who were committed to Communism. In the fifty years since Gustavson wrote this book, the control of ideas may be even more difficult.   I say “may” because of the susceptibility of people to misinformation and the fact that while new technologies may come and go, I also tend to agree with Barnum when he said, “there’s a sucker born every minute.” Gustavson writes, “Because of the higher development of education …and the improved means of spreading ideas, the government must provide the masses with ideas or see the masses permeated by thoughts not to the liking of the authorities” (196). This still rings true today.  With the Internet, the masses may have improved access to information and a greater range of sources, but it is also the sheer amount of information, much of it trivial, which makes manipulation of the large common mass of people possible.  We live in the age of information and misinformation.  As every other age has witnessed, technology may make our activities faster, more convenient, and more accurate but it will still be at the service of, and a reflection of, the human will with its love of ideas and its drive towards power, and with all of its conflicting impulses towards good and evil.

With these varying impulses so evident today, I think the question is not how historical thinking can be used profitably in everyday life, but how one can go through life without reference to the events, decisions and personalities both great and flawed of our collective past.  How can a citizen vote without a sense of the history of democracy?  How can we get through the news day and still have hope without an understanding of the similar challenges that faced people in the past?  How barren to live in a world where the origins of our customs remain concealed in a distant mist. As I read Gustavson, I began to place my siblings and friends in various lights- my twin sister the nun as an extension of the long history of the Roman Catholic Church, my brother the policeman as one more in a long line of those who favor physical force as a means to societal control, my elder sister the Gay, conservative, CEO of a large Christian organization as a wonderful product of varying lines of development, myself too as just such a product of forces. A sense of history allows us to see ourselves and others in a truer light. It gives us insight as to why a person acted in a seemingly irrational way, or why events in our time seem to be careening out of control. Historical thinking gives us a context in which to live our lives, a context infinitely more varied and rich than the narrow field of the present. And in it, I believe, lies the only hope for our future.

Work Cited

Gustavson, Carl G. A Preface to History. New York: McGraw, 1955.

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Confucianism – A General Summary of the Religion

The teaching Confucius. Portrait by Wu Daozi, 685-758, Tang Dynasty via Wikipedia

Author: William Bailey

Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC) is a well-known philosopher who is known for his work in governmental and personal morality, sincerity, justice, and the correctness of social relationships. He is known as a Chinese thinker and philosopher during the Spring and Autumn Periods, which corresponds to the first half of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (771 to 476 BC). Confucianism is an ancient Chinese religion with approximately 6 million followers worldwide, and named after the well-known philosopher, Confucius. The religion involves the worshiping of the spirits of the forefathers, the great God of Heaven, and the consecrating angles. In addition to the religious values and traditions that were inherited from their forefathers, Confucius added moral values and his own philosophy. The sum of these ideals equaled sound behavior, which is one of the main attributes of Confucianism.

Confucianism is centralized around the core concept of humanism. Humanism is a philosophy or practice that is based on human values and concerns. It’s believed that humans are able to improve themselves through teachings and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the refinement of one’s ethics and personal virtue, specifically ren, yi, and li. Li deals with one’s overall demeanor within a community. Ren is caring for the welfare of others within one’s society, and Yi is the adherence to one’s moral principles that benefit the community from within. A true Confucianist must be willing to give their life while upholding their virtues and moral ethics. Confucianism doesn’t involve the belief of a God or the supernatural world, therefore is a non-theistic religion.

Confucianism originated in mainland China and spread throughout other territories including Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan. Themes of Confucian thought are elements such as modesty, reverence, righteousness, loyalty, honesty, shame, bravery, cleanliness, gentleness, frugalness, and kindheartedness.

Relationships are a key concept in the religion of Confucianism. There are numerous stages of relationships in one’s life. As a junior, one has relationships with parents and elders. Juniors owe reverence to their seniors. As a senior, one has relationships with juniors. Seniors are required to have loyalty and care for the welfare of juniors. This loyalty and feelings of benevolence are present, even in today’s East Asian’s society. This harmonic social class order is only possible when each individual of the society are both aware and plays a part in his or her social role.

A key concept within the Confucianist society is ‘The Great Learning’ teachings. The following six principles and key aspects are essential concepts of the religion:

• Tao – Is a metaphysical concept meaning the underlying natural order of the universe, and the state of refining your moral self and achieving balance.
• The path will be reveled to one, after the proper rest, reflection, and calmness is achieved.
• Focusing properly will allow one to set priorities that are essential to one’s goal, thereby allowing achievement of the goal attainable.
• Education is both comprehensive and imperative to one’s future.
• Confucianist must utilize the trickle-down theory in reference to one’s personal relationships, organization, and product. When one’s personal or home life is in order the positive results will reflect in their professional activities.
• Confucianism believes in the concept of effort over knowledge. Political influence, financial compensation, or social status has no bearing on one’s capability of learning.

Beginning in the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Confucianism regulated gender roles as the cornerstone of its religion, thus shaping social life and societal stability in East Asia. Confucius regulated the following female and male roles in society:

• Women remained dependent to their father prior to marrying.
• Women became dependent on their husband after marriage.
• Women became dependent on their child if in fact their husband passed away.
• In ancient times, successful men had many side relationships (concubines) with women who they were not married to.
• Men had the option to remarry, whereas women were supposed to retain their vow of chastity when their husbands were lost.

Ban Zhao (45 – 116CE) was born in Fufenganlin (in current day it’s called Shanxi Province). Ban Zhao followed in her father’s (Ban Biao) footsteps and became a famous historian. She has the honor of being the first known female Chinese historian. In the Han dynasty period, Ban Zhao wrote the important Confucian text titled ‘Lessons for Women’, or ‘Nujie’. These lessons were written by a woman and for women. The book listed the following proper roles for women:

• All women should be hard working, follow instruction, and remain silent.
• Ban Zhao enforced the yin-yang theory of how opposites are interdependent. She utilized this theory by showing how men and women are equally dependent upon one another however, she points out the fact that the yang-male is dominant.
• In contrast to typical Confucianism practices, Ban Zhao maps out a solid educational plan for all females of all ages.

The question of the Confucianism religion being secular or non-secular dates back to the 16th Century. When Europeans (Christian Jesuits) arrived in China, they researched Confucianism and came to the conclusion that it was a non-religious based ethical system, however compatible with Christianity. The debate of Confucianism being a religion continues today. That said, two aspects of the religion have been agreed upon. Confucianism is both humanistic, and a non-theistic religion.

Confucianism deals with the here and now. The cornerstone and root of its religion is moral values. The moral values include, reciprocating harmony, the act of turning the other cheek when receiving an unwelcome statement or hypocrisy.

Analects of Confucius are records of acts, words, and discussions of Confucius and his disciples. The Analects are considered the core belief system of Confucianism. These records were written around 500 BC with the vast majority written approximately 40 years after his death. Confucius began writing the Analects in the Spring and Autumn Period. It is believed that Confucius’s disciples and ‘second generation’ disciples wrote the vast majority of the Analects, and completed the records during the Warring States Period, with the content being Confucius’s theories, ideas, and thoughts.

‘I transmit but do not create, I place my trust in the teachings of antiquity.’

Written by – Confucius, Analects VII

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/religion-articles/confucianism-a-general-summary-of-the-religion-5738387.html

About the Author

William Bailey has written and published numerous books, E-books, papers, articles, research papers, reviews, and other publications in various genres including politics, children’s literature, fiction, non-fiction, science fiction, self-help, How-To, article reporting, and other categories of genres and sub-genres.

William Bailey’s writing website is as follows:

http://baileypublishing.webs.com

Reverend Doctor William Bailey: received his ordination confirmation in the year 2011, thereby making him, Rev. William Bailey. He then competed his Dissertation of Divinity in 2012 making him Rev. Dr. William Bailey. Aricles relating to religions or a spiritual nature published on this website are from research materials acquired while completing his Doctorate of Divinity. He has founded a Spiritual Network online at the following address:

http://holytrinityministries.webs.com/

Rev. Dr. William Bailey has an additional email for religious correspondents:

reverendwilliambailey@religious.com

As always his general email address is: billbailey15@hotmail.com

I’m covering the 2012 Presidential election by posting articles frequently on this site.

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Warning Those Thinking About Becoming Jewish

"Marranos" by Moshe Maimon (1893) via Wikipedia

by Rabbi Allen S. Maller

Most of the thousands of non-Jews who convert to Judaism every year in the U.S. and Canada are surprised to learn that a non-Jew who wants to join the Jewish people and become Jewish, will be welcomed; but only after being warned that Jews have often been oppressed and persecuted. Even people who have discovered a Jewish ancestor, and desire to return to their Jewish heritage and join the Jewish people, should carefully read about what happened to a Portugese army officer who more than 80 years ago, discovered he was descended from Marranos (Jews forcibly converted to Christianity as a result of the Inquisition).

When the king of Spain decided to “cleanse” the country of Jews in 1492, the Jewish community was given the choice of converting to Christianity or expulsion. The majority left, but many converted. Most Jews crossed the border into Portugal. Others went to Morocco, France and Italy. Many chose to settle in the Ottoman Empire. Scarcely five years had passed before the scenario repeated itself in Portugal. But in this case, the Jews were not allowed to leave. The entire Jewish population was forcibly baptized. A handful managed to escape.

If it is true that 15 to 20 percent of the population of Portugal was Jewish at the end of the 15th century, as some scholars claim, one gets an idea of how many of today’s Portuguese and Brazilians have Jewish roots. Over the years, they assimilated in Christian society, although small pockets preserved a ritual or two or remembered that an ancestor or two were Jews . Of those who clung to Judaism, many were tried by the Inquisition in the 16th and 17th centuries. Such trials were even held in Brazil. The accused were burned at the stake or imprisoned in monasteries for the rest of their lives.An example of the amazing return of one man in Portugal was related by Henrique Zimmerman in an Israeli newspaper, HaAretz 2/17/12, as follows:  I was born and raised in Porto, Portugal. One of the most significant places in the lives of the local Jews was the neighborhood synagogue, impressive and grand, but nearly empty. The Makor Haim Synagogue was built in the 1930s by Captain Artur Carlos de Barros Basto.

Barros Basto, born in 1887, was a World War I hero who fought in Belgium. Before that he had belonged to the group that toppled the monarchy in Portugal and founded the republic in 1910, when he himself raised the flag of the new government. The republic was critical of the Church and carefully guarded religious freedom. In the 1920s Barros Basto learned from his grandfather that he had Jewish roots. In the light of the new religious freedom in Portugal, he decided to return to his forefathers’ people and religion. He went to Tangier, Morocco to convert. The orthodox rabbis at the local rabbinical court, due to their objection to conversion, tried to get Barros Basto to convert in Algeria. Barros Basto replied that he would not leave without completing the process, which he believed was merely a technicality since he already felt like a Jew. He was eventually converted in Tangier.

When he got back to his homeland he set about establishing a Jewish congregation for the first time in over 400 years – the first since the expulsion of Jews from Portugal. He built and founded a school, a community newspaper, and our synagogue, Makor Haim. When other Portugese with Jewish ancestors heard about Barros Basto they began streaming to the place. “We too are Jews, even though our family converted to Christianity following the expulsion from Portugal in 1497,” they told him. Encouraged by the new congregants, Barros Basto began traveling all over northern Portugal in search of lost Jews. And he found them. They were amazed by the Jewish captain. “Let us build a community openly, there is nothing to fear. We are a republic,” he told them. Thus it was that hundreds of young people joined him and came to the school he founded in Porto, where they studied Judaism and Hebrew. A doctor descended from Marranos helped him to perform ritual circumcision ceremonies on the students, and there was a wealth of Jewish activity. Graduates of the school he founded . became teachers and went back to their hometowns to teach their Marrano neighbors.

In 1928 Portugal was rocked by another revolution that restored to the Church the power it had during the days of the monarchy. The priests did not look kindly upon the new movement that was trying to bring thousands of Marranos back to the Jewish people. Furthermore, with the change of government, the Portuguese attitude toward the country’s Jews in general also changed. Once, at a military ceremony dedicated to WWI heroes, somebody declared publicly that Barros Basto should not be given a medal because of his religion. Tensions worsened in the 1930s, when a fascist government arose in Portugal. In 1937 Barros Basto was put on trial in two cases, one civil and the other military, and was found guilty of participating in circumcision ceremonies. After he was found guilty, the government stripped  his of his military rank and repossessed his pension. Inacio Steinhardt, an Israeli who emigrated from Portugal, wrote a biography about this Portuguese Dreyfus.

In 1961, Barros Basto died, far from the spotlight. His final request was to be buried at the cemetery in Amarante, the village where he was born, dressed in his military uniform, with his medals and the national flag. Inacio Steinhardt, an Israeli who emigrated from Portugal, wrote a biography about the Portuguese Dreyfus.

On April 25, 1974, young army officers led a velvet revolution that removed the dictator Marcelo Caetano. In 1975, Lea Barros Basto, hopeful that democracy had been introduced, asked parliament to do her husband justice and clear his name, but the military intervened and stopped the initiative. After the widow’s death, the couple’s daughter petitioned parliament, but she too was unable to accomplish anything. In 1997, in honor of the 500th anniversary of the expulsion of Portugal’s Jews, then-Knesset Speaker Dan Tichon paid a visit to the country. That same year, 1997, a synagogue called Beit Eliyahu was inaugurated in the town of Belmonte in northern Portugal, and many local residents have converted to Judaism.

Steinhardt describes a movement to return to Judaism that is on currently on the rise among descendants of the Marranos – not only in Portugal, but in the United States, South Africa and other places to which Portuguese migrated. He says there are websites and online blogs devoted to this subject, and that some descendants of Marranos have also come to Israel to convert or live. For those interested in becoming Jewish; you have been warned and you are welcome to join us.

Many people who become Jewish do not know of a specific Jew who was an ancestor but come from a population that contains the descendants of past Jewish communities.  Millions of Spanish and Portuguese speakers are descendants of Jews who were forcibly baptized during the 15th century. In 1391 there were anti-Jewish riots in several Spanish cities. Thousands of Jews were forcibly baptized. The Church viewed these baptisms as valid because the Spanish Jews had freely chosen baptism over death, unlike the Jews of France and Germany during the first and second crusades, who chose to kill themselves rather than be baptized. Over the next three generations there were additional riots that led to more forcible baptisms.

Of course, Jews forced to be Christians didn’t stop believing in Judaism, but they had to practice it and teach their children in secret. The Church knew this but they thought that all the children and grandchildren of the Marranos (as the secret Jews were called) would be indoctrinated in the true faith and become believers. This did not happen. In 1480 the Inquisition began holding trials in Spain. Over the next two centuries thousands would be tried/tortured, and imprisoned or executed. In 1492 all unbaptized Jews in Spain were exiled. Over 100,000 Jews left Spain, most of them going to Portugal. In 1497, they were expelled from Portugal, but first all their children were forcibly baptized, so parents who didn’t want to lose their children had to freely choose baptism. In later decades many of these secret Jews and their children came to the new world seeking freedom, so the Inquisition was established in Lima in 1570 and in Mexico City in 1571 Secret Jews fled to all parts of central and south America to escape. (see: A History of the Marranos by Cecil Roth) . Many of descendants of these people have Jewish souls and are now returning to the Jewish people. How would someone know if he or she could be one of them?

Signs of a Jewish soul.

1- You like to ask questions? But when you asked them as a child, you were told faith is a gift from God and you shouldn’t question it. This never satisfied you, although others didn’t seem to have a problem with this view.

2- The trinity never made any sense to you even as a young child. You prayed to God the father more easily than Jesus the son of God, even though you were told to pray to Jesus. You couldn’t believe that people who didn’t believe in Jesus couldn’t go to Heaven.

3- You found you related well to Jewish people you met at work or at school even though they were culturally different from your own family.

4- When you first learned about the Holocaust you reacted more emotionally than did other members of your own family.

5- When you started to learn about Judaism the ideas and values seemed reasonable and the traditions and heritage seemed attractive.

The promise of democracy and religious Freedom in Portugal failed in the 1930′s. Let us pray that this promise does not fail again in our generation for Reform and Progressive Jewish congregations and their rabbis welcome everyone interested in learning more about Jewish music, culture and religion. For those interested in becoming Jewish; you have been warned and you are welcome to join us.
More information about reincarnation and becoming Jewish can be found in “God, Sex and Kabbalah” by Rabbi Allen S. Maller or at Rabbi Maller’s web site: rabbimaller.com   Judaism is for Non-Jews.

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VW’s, Jews, and Making History

German engineer Josef Ganz in his Maikäfer prototype, built at Adler, 1931 via Wikipedia

By Rabbi Allen S. Maller

The Volkswagen ‘bug’ was the most produced single design of a car ever made. More than 21 million of the original Beetles were built before production ended in Mexico in 2003.

Lillian Swanson, managing editor of the Forward newspaper, in a review of Paul Schilperoord’s new book, “The Extraordinary Life of Josef Ganz, The Jewish Engineer Behind Hitler’s Volkswagen” (RVP Publishers, 2011) tells an amazing story.

Schilperoord, a Dutch journalist and technology writer, researched private archives and public records for five years. He makes a convincing argument that Ganz, a German Jew, and not Ferdinand Porsche, should be considered “the spiritual father” of the VW, because Ganz first developed and promoted the key design concepts that led to the “People’s Car.”

Schilperoord says there were three very accomplished, independent engineers available at the time: Ferdinand Porsche, Edmund Rumpler and Josef Ganz. The last two were Jews, so in a speech in 1935, Hitler named Porsche as the designer of a small car that would become the Volkswagen ‘bug’, which used many of Ganz’s pioneering designs.

Standard Superior, built by the Standard Fahrzeugfabrik according to the patents of German engineer Josef Ganz, 1933 - Josef Ganz Archives via Wikipedia

Ganz would not give up on his idea, even after an arrest by the Gestapo in 1933, a narrow escape from an assassination attempt and having his bank account confiscated. Ganz fought in the courts against those who stole his patents and designs, and then fled to Switzerland. In 1951 Ganz moved to Melbourne, Australia, where he worked in engineering for Holden, the Australian branch of General Motors Corp. When he died there, in 1967, his extensive archive, filled with evidence of his work, was lost.

For many years after the German genocide against European Jews, most American and Canadian Jews did not buy German cars. Then German support for Israel in the 1960′s and 70′s plus German support for the ‘free Soviet Jews campaign’ in the 1970′s and 80′s changed the Jewish aversion for German cars.

For more about this excellent book go to: http://www.forward.com/articles/150963/#ixzz1lzBsuiEM

Rabbi Maller’s web site is: rabbimaller.com

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Lest We Forget

Lest We Forget, originally uploaded by earthpages.

WHY ALL CALENDER EPOCH YEAR DATES ARE RELIGIOUS

Mosaic pavement of a 6th century synagogue at Beit Alpha, Jezreel Valley, northern Israel. It was discovered in 1928. Signs of the zodiac surround the central chariot of the Sun (a Greek motif), while the corners depict the 4 "turning points" ("tekufot") of the year, solstices and equinoxes, each named for the month in which it occurs--tequfah of Tishrei, (tequfah of Tevet), tequfah of Ni(san), tequfah of Tamuz - via Wikipedia

By Rabbi Allen S. Maller

For more than 1.000 years all the world’s major calendars have included a date for the year as well as the month and day. This seems  normal to us but for most of recorded  history calendars only recorded  the month and day. The year was counted from the start of the rule of a king or a dynasty. When the next king or dynasty came along, a new count was started again. Only major religions that last for many centuries can produce a calendar that will outlast individual political states and empires. Thus, all the world’s major calendars today are religious.

January the first will begin the Christian epoch year 2012. The Jewish epoch year, 5772, began on the evening of September 28, 2011. Christians know their calendar starts from the birth of Jesus. Muslims know the Muslim calendar begins with the escape of Muhammad from rejection and persecution in Makka to the opportunity of Medina. Buddhists know that their calendar starts with the enlightenment of Siddhartha under a Bodhi tree.  But most Jews would be hard pressed  to explain what happened  5,772 years ago to start the Jewish calendar.

By analogy to the Christian, Muslim, or Buddhist calendars one might expect that the Jewish calendar starts with the birth of Abraham (the first Jew), or from the Exodus  from Egypt (the trans-formative experience of the Jewish people), or from the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai (the enlightenment of the Jewish people). But the second century Rabbis who made up the epoch calendar Jews currently use, chose to begin with Adam and Eve i.e. the beginning of human civilization.

The word Adam in Hebrew means  mankind/Homo Sapiens– the species.  The exit of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden symbolizes  the transition of humanity from a largely nomadic/neolithic stone age society of hunter-gatherers to a more advanced metal working bronze age society of farmers and village dwellers.  By starting the Jewish calendar with  a historical transition that would have a universal impact on all of human society,  the second century rabbis followed the lead of the Bible, which begins not with Judaism, but with the origin of farming, village civilization and recorded history.

All historical dates that are derived from written records will fit into the Jewish calendar. The earliest writing comes from the Mesopotamian city of Uruk (Genesis 10:10) and dates to about 5,500 years ago i.e. the third century of the Jewish calendar. The first dynasty in Egypt arose in the 7th century of the Jewish calendar and the first stone pyramid in the 10th century. The famous king Sargon of Akkad (2371-2316 BCE) lived in the 14th century of the Jewish calendar. Abraham was not born till the 21th century of the Jewish calendar. It is only in the generations after Abraham that Biblical history begins to focus on the religious development of one specific people.

The Jewish calendar is not only the oldest of the world’s calendars, it is the only one that begins with the beginning of recorded human history. Everything prior to the Jewish calendar is prehistory. History begins with Adam and Eve.

Author’s Website: http://rabbimaller.com

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Introduction to the Scientific Revolution

Portrait of Nicole Oresme: Miniature from Oresme's Traité de l’espere, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris via Wikipedia

Author: Dr Simon Harding

The Scientific Revolution

The term Scientific Revolution is in itself controversial. Traditionally the term is used to describe the spectacular intellectual triumphs of sixteenth and seventeenth century European astronomy and physical science. But perhaps this is a rather simplistic view because much of the success of the scientific revolution was based firmly on achievements made during the Renaissance and before. The term revolution implies a rapid transformation but many scientific discoveries were achieved gradually phase by phase over a long period of time. Despite this qualification by 1700 educated people conceived the universe as a mechanical structure like a clock and nature was supposed to be open to investigation by means of experimentation and mathematical analysis. Such new attitudes contrasted markedly with traditional idea i.e. that the Earth was immobile and the centre of the universe which was composed of a series of crystalline spheres and nature was a living organism.

In the medieval world picture Aristotle rules – the heavens were unchangeable, motion of the planets was circular and perfect. Below the moon the Earth was changeable and was composed of only four elements – earth, water, air and fire. Thomas Aquinas had sought to assimilate Christian doctrine to the philosophy of Aristotle. The major shift in outlook during the early modern period was closely associated with a broader cultural transformation in which the acquisition of natural knowledge and the control of nature were associated with man’s religious destiny. Thus the scientific revolution, if the term be allowed to stand, reflected revolution or change in other areas of society.

In particular in this essay I want to discuss how the scientific revolution was a reflection of changes taking place in the Renaissance, religious change in the Reformation, technical and educational changes in particular which reflect world geographical discoveries and with a brief mention of politics, economics and war’s effect on science.

Humanism

During the Renaissance Aristotle’s views had been questioned. Nicole Oresme denied the validity of reasoned argument and physical theory. Aristotle had developed a physical system largely by deductive reasoning but the Nominalists rejected deduction from the mere nature of objects and applied a stronger emphasis on empirical facts. Jean Buridan and Oresme advocated such views. Oresme felt that Christian doctrine was the only valid authority for knowledge and theology was the Queen of Sciences. The limitation of human reason implied that Christian doctrine alone could serve as the ultimate authority for human understanding.

As the Renaissance progressed the interest in natural magic became dominant in the study of the natural world and such an investigation was sanctioned by the rediscovery of the texts of Hermes Trismegistus, quite wrongly believed to be of great antiquity. The hermetic writings contain a blend of mysticism, magical and Christian elements. Renaissance thinkers thus secured the harmony between Christian theology and the vision of the natural world in the hermetic texts. The hermetic emphasis on the control of power by man was a significant feature of Renaissance natural magic or alchemy of which the chief exponent was Paracelsus.

From this example we can see how an important stimulus to research (even if often of not direct scientific value) were the texts made available by the humanist scholars. The work of all the Greek writers was made available and the work of recovery was a precondition for future advance in scientific thinking even if many old ideas were rejected or open to misinterpretation such as the Hermetica which made astrology, alchemy and magic acceptable which would retard the advance of actual science. However, the humanists did the world of science a great service in spreading Plato’s ideas because underlying the work of Copernicus, Brahe and Kepler was the Platonic assumption that the world could be explained in mathematical terms. The idea was applied to astronomy originally because Aristotle had held that mathematics could not explain phenomena on earth adequately but this view was overturned and led to the rise of mechanics under Galileo and Simon Stevin aided and abetted by the humanist translations of Archimedes.

From these example I hope it is clear that Renaissance humanism had a profound impact on the scientific revolution by making old knowledge available. But humanism’s influence was wider than that because their study of the original sources had not been confined to scientific treatises and the Bible itself was scrutinized which ultimately led (amongst other causes) to the Reformation. But before I go on to discuss religion and its influence on the scientific revolution one last theme of the Renaissance in connection with science needs to be discussed – namely the contribution of the Renaissance painters. These were the first to develop a close and accurate observation of nature and we can see in the work of Leonardo da Vinci details of human anatomy, plants and rocks. Albrecht Durer’s ‘Hare’ and other works are well known for their close attention to detail while Leonardo’s and Andreas Vasalius’ anatomical drawings opened up new fields as far as medicine was concerned.

Religion

Thus the scientific revolution was in part a reflection of a revolution in learning and art that had taken place in the Renaissance. The humanists had contributed to scientific knowledge by their translations of Aristotle, Archimedes, Plato and Galen but perhaps more significantly they were indirectly partly responsible for the religious revolutions of the period in question. There is a great debate over the relationship of Protestantism to science. Perhaps at first glance we can see a profound relationship between the two because of Protestant’s share of scientific activity.

For example in the Royal Society of 1663 62of the members were of Puritan origin; the majority of sixteenth century botanists were Protestants e.g. Brunfels, Boch and Fuchs. However, I do not think such abstract examples prove much. Despite this the coincidence of new learning and new doctrine does exist but this may also be due to economic and social factors rather than religion per se. In commercial cities religious tolerance was furthered by the interests of trade but it should be remembered that in early modern society religious sanction was necessary for something to become socially acceptable. If Catholic authorities sometimes refused to sanction scientific research people would be less likely to pursue such activity.

Max Weber argued that the Calvinist doctrine of election and belief that performance of good works is an outward sign of election determined intramundane asceticism which in turn led to greater economic activity and fostered capitalism. Perhaps to an extent this is true. Calvinism could provide the religious sanction for manual and experimental work – all labour was a calling and such views were held by William Perkins and Latimer for example. The ethos of labor had received further impetus by the earlier emancipation of the artisan class which followed hard on the heels of religious freedom. Merton extended Weber’s arguments in stating that the attitudes if self restraint , simplicity and diligence furthered the aptitude for scientific research.

On the surface such arguments may sound convincing but there were many notable ‘scientists’ who were not Protestant and in any event the doctrine of predestination was not specifically Calvinist or even Protestant. Perhaps the preponderant influence of Protestantism was an emphasis on the general priesthood of all believers under which system anyone could study. Although traditionalism remained strong in most Protestant countries and their universities was very conservative new ideas did have a better chance of being heard. There was no Holy Office or Index to prevent the emergence of new ideas that had been illustrated by the church’s conflict with Galileo. The analogy between the liberation from ecclesiastical and philosophical tradition by the Reformation and the liberation of science from ancient authority by new learning was not lost on contemporaries. Thomas Sprat pointed to what the Reformation and new learning had in common in that both of them refer to original sources – one to Scripture and one to the book of nature.

Against this some have argued that Protestantism was less favorably inclined towards Copernicus’ system than the Roman Catholics before the trial of Galileo but really only Melanchthon condemned the motion of the earth and Calvin thought that Moses had written part of the Bible for the common people – he fully recognized the discrepancies between the Bible and science but to his credit did not repudiate science. This accommodation theory wa sin turn to influence William Gilbert, Edward Wright and van Lansbergen. The influence of Protestantism or more especially Puritanism on science can also be seen to interact with social factors. Puritanism found many adherents among the newly emancipated class of merchants, artisans and navigators – a ‘class’ that more and more showed and interest in science and technology. Gresham College was a Puritan hotbed and although Bacon was not strictly a Puritan his ideas found great acceptance among them. Francis Bacon exerted a powerful influence on the scientific tradition of the seventeenth century. Bacon was more of an essayist and moral philosopher than a scientist but in his ‘Advancement of Learning’ 1605 and ‘New Atlantis’ 1627 he offered schemes for the reconstruction of learning by the careful collection and comparison of data and use of experiments. Bacon thought that science should be directed towards religious ends – the restoration of knowledge that Adam lost at the Fall. This was certainly in keeping with many Puritan’s views.

Some historians argue that Puritanism was especially conducive to the pursuit of the sciences but there were more than religious motives for science. Nevertheless within the pattern of links between religious attitude and science the works of Puritan intellectuals from 1620 to the Restoration were important. Puritan reformers e.g the Prussian emigre Samuel Hartlib stressed the importance of the reformation of education, medicine, technology and agriculture. The revival of learning was the means for the realization of the utopian paradise and eschatological and utopian expectorations ran high during the Puritan Revolution. Nor was such feeling confined to England. Notable scientists such as Pascal supported the Jansenists in their struggle against the Jesuits and upheld the ideas of Galileo, Copernicus and Torricelli.

If Protestantism in its varied forms tended to encourage rather than discourage science this is in marked contrast to some Catholic attitudes towards scientific advance. However, before we denounce all Catholics as being backward looking and intransigent we should remember that the Renaissance itself and the consequent revolution in knowledge had been born in Catholic Italy. Galileo’s ‘Starry Messenger’ 1610, however, did cause a sensation which was made worse by his literary ability and character. He denied that theology alone could determine right or wrong in scientific fields and asserted the authority of the methods of science. His conflict led to the placing of Copernicus’ work ion the Index and Galileo’s house arrest. We can see how different sects reacted to the scientific revolution to only a limited extent because Galileo was an exception but perhaps his treatment shows the reluctance of some parts of the Catholic church to adopt new ideas of the cosmos once it had managed to adopt Aristotle’s and Ptolemaic ideas.

It is true to say that the scientific revolution was a reflection of revolution in other areas of society to a certain extent. Scientific advance was associated with religious revolution but we must beware of saying all Protestants were Copernicans and vice versa. Voet in the Netherlands and John Owen were both devout Protestants but refused to believe in Copernicus’ ideas and much of the ‘new learning’ had come from the Catholic humanists.

Technology

However, I feel that it is time to move away from religion to explore some of the other aspects of the scientific revolution. Religion was not the only factor experiencing a revolution in early modern society. The scientific revolution followed an earlier technological revolution which was a response to practical problems of the day. There were many earlier developments in the mechanical arts. Perhaps most notably of all there was the earlier invention of the printing press. Gutenberg’s invention had stimulated the technological revolution itself by creating a demand for specially cast metals and more complex machinery but much more significantly it helped enormously the dissemination of new ideas and knowledge without which there would have been no scientific revolution. The knowledge of the ancients would have been confirmed to a few academics and the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo in particular would not have had the influence they did on Newton if the ideas had not spread.

The scientific revolution owes a great debt to the foregoing technological revolution in printing. But the technological revolution consisted of more than printing. The famous humanist Luis Vives advised scholars to visit workshops and said ordinary man knew better than the philosophers who instead of real nature imagined ‘Forms, ideas and other chimerae’. Peter Ramus urged the same advice and in England there was close cooperation between craftsman and would be scientists at Gresham College, a similar development took place in Holland at Leyden university and at Rotterdam.

War and Politics

The much earlier invention of and use gunpowder in warfare was related to politics. This eventually had further spin offs in the studies of ballistics and metallurgical crafts. Drurer himself wrote a book on the fortification of cities and Leonardo and Michelangelo served as military engineers from time to time. Mathematicians were summoned by the emergent states to produce accurate maps (e.g. Mercator), artillery, ciphers for diplomatic correspondence or to supervise the mints. Thus the needs of war , which were frequent in this turbulent period, influenced the scientific revolution via the demand for improvements in technology.Theories of surveying, projection, ballistics, cryptography, statistics and economics developed. Georg Bauer (Agricola) was a classical example of someone who studied practical problems and this resulted in his mining book ‘De re metalica’

Discovery

Perhaps more significantly the new geographical discoveries of Columbus, Diaz, Magellan, and Vespucci all had an impact on the scientific revolution. The practical problems of navigation led to the creation of better astronomical tables, improved maps and compass before the true onset of the scientific revolution. In addition to this demand the explorers themselves returned much interesting information from the New World. Columbus was a remarkably astute observer of flora and fauna for example. Exploration in turn was influenced by economics and politics. War was not the stimulating factor here but the discovery of new trade routes was. Thus we can see that there is a long chain of interaction from the economic and political demands of the emerging nations of Europe via technological and practical innovation to the advancement of the scientific revolution. The trades and crafts provided new technology, techniques and apparatus including the telescope, metallurgy, dyestuffs and surveying. War had stimulated therapeutics, and medicine, ballistics and engineering.

However, I think there is a very real danger of exaggerating the impact of practical problems on the scientific revolution. Technology and theoretical science touched each other at points but frequently ignored each other – for example the dyeing industry had little effect on chemical theory. Ambroise Pare’s medical advances in therapeutics had little effect on medical theory and who can tell if William Gilbert’s ideas were inspired by practical problems or by philosophy ?

Conclusion

We have explored the effects of the Renaissance revival of learning, the influence of the Reformation, and technological advances stemming largely from the needs of war, politics and discovery of new lands. There are obvious connections between such developments and the scientific revolution but this should not blind us to the fact that the scientific revolution also picked up some momentum of its own, for example Boyle’s chemistry and examination of the physical properties of gases show the influence of Descartes particle theories as well as application of Baconian experimental methods. It could be argued that printing, a technological innovation, allowed ‘scientists’ ideas to spread theories. The theories of one man provided the stimulus to further research from another rather than the stimulus of any exogenous factor or revolutionary change. Descartes work provoked a storm of criticism from Pascal, Boyle and Newton. Isaac Newton himself, whose achievements are often seen as the culmination of the scientific revolution, in his work ‘Mathematical Principles of Natural philosophy’ 1687 had some base in the work of Kepler. Kepler in turn was indebted to Tycho Brahe and Copernicus. These example help to illustrate the fact that apart from the initial injection of the wisdom of antiquity the scientific revolution gathered a momentum of its own and was thus not simply a refection of revolution in other areas of early modern society. The scientific revolution was more original than that – for example the mechanical conception of the universe which had replaced old organic theories owed little directly to ancient philosophy the reformation or advances in technology. Such theories were the ideas of Descartes, Kepler and Newton’s individual genius rather than a reflection of revolution in other areas of society.

In conclusion it can be said that the scientific revolution was a reflection of a revolution in other areas of early modern society to only a certain extent. The early modern period witnessed political, religious, technological and geographical revolutions and these in turn were reflected in scientific developments but to admit this is not to detract from the fact that the scientific revolution itself, once established, gathered its own initiatives as a genuine interest in science grew throughout the period.

Dr Simon Harding

www.chronosconsulting.com

www.biblon.com

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/introduction-to-the-scientific-revolution-3992139.html

About the Author

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A History of Christmas Carols – Their Origins and Significance

Child singers carrying a star with icon of a saint. Bucharest, 1842 via Wikipedia

By: Robert Hinchliffe

Copyright (c) 2010 Robert Hinchliffe

The history of Christmas Carols goes back as far as the 13th century. The word carol is an old word for a verse song with a refrain, so Christmas Carol simply means a song on a Christmas theme. This very seasonal form of worship music has a long tradition in most countries of Western Europe, a tradition which has spread throughout the whole of the Christian world. In France they are “Noels”, a word which has found its way into the English language as Nowell. In Germany they have the “Weihnachtslieder” which translates as Christmas Eve Songs.

Many well-known carols actually relate to Advent and Epiphany so are not really Christmas Carols at all. “The Holly and the Ivy” is a carol all about the Advent Ring, whilst, “We three Kings” is obviously related to the celebration of Epiphany. However, all the seasonal worship songs are gathered together under that one term, Christmas Carol. The traditional Sunday School Nativity Play draws together the whole of the Christmas story incorporating aspects of both Advent and Epiphany. The two versions of Christ’s birth as recorded in Matthew’s and Luke’s Gospels are woven together to make one continuous narrative. Appropriate Christmas Carols are usual worked into the action to reinforce the storyline.

Some of the earliest examples in the history of Christmas carols are based on pagan songs which were changed and updated to carry the Christian message. One of the oldest Christmas Carols in the English tradition is “The Boar’s Head Carol” first printed in 1521. This was initially sung as the boar’s head, the centre dish of many a traditional Christmas dinner, was carried into the room on Christmas Day.

Within the long history of Christmas Carols, we can encounter all aspects of the whole Christmas story. The angels and shepherds of Luke’s account appear in many carols; the story of Herod and the wise men reported in Matthew’s Gospel in others. There are the joyful carols such as “O come, all ye faithful” and “God rest you merry, gentlemen”. There are the gentle carols, especially loved by children, such as “Away in a manger” and “Silent Night”. There are also the reflective carols where the ultimate significance of Christ’s birth is considered. A particular favourite of mine is “See, amid the winter’s snow”. This hymn has a chorus which hints at what Christ’s incarnation was all about:

“Hail, thou ever-blessed morn! Hail, redemption’s happy dawn! Sing, through all Jerusalem: Christ is born in Bethlehem!”

Whatever our background or upbringing, if we grew up in a mainly Christian society we are aware of Christmas Carols from a very early age. They are part and parcel of the memories we have of our childhood Christmases. It is also thanks to the widespread singing of carols, that Christmas is the one time of year when the faithless in our society simply cannot avoid the Christian message how ever hard they try. The history of Christmas carols is ongoing as new examples are being added to the available repertoire every year.

About the Author

Robert Hinchliffe is a professional musician and Methodist local preacher. He is an oboist and composer; – also a writer of worship songs. This article is a result of his recent research into the history of music in Christian worship. For more details visit www.robsworshipmusic.com/mcweb.htm and find out how you can access a FREE copy of Robert’s new Christmas song, “The Greatest Gift”

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – A History of Christmas Carols – Their Origins and Significance

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St Catherine’s Story and the Monastery

Mount Catherine in Sinai, the country's highest point via Wikipedia

By: Steve Phillips

St Catherine’s Monastery lies in the shadow of Mount Sinai (Jebel Musa) in the Wadi ed-Deir. The spot where the Monastery now stands is traditionally revered as the site of the Burning Bush (Exodus 3:1).

St Helena, the mother of Constantine visited the site in the fourth century and the fourth century pilgrim diary of Egeria bears witness to the presence of an eremetical group tending the spot and welcoming pilgrims.

St Catherine’s is the only monastery still active in the Sinai, and consists of a group of 10-15 Greek Orthodox monks who still welcome pilgrims today. The present buildings date from the sixth century when the Emperor Justinian offered his patronage. The main basilica was built by him with the magnificent apse mosaic depicting the transfiguration of Christ. (Matthew 17:2 and Mark 9:2)

“Jesus took with him Peter and James and John his brother, and led them up a high mountain apart. And he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his garments became white as light. And behold, there appeared to them Moses and Elijah, talking with him.”

The Crusading era brought a new wave of iconographic art. Icons of St George surrounded by the great crusading legends are on display alongside the early works from Egypt, Syria, Constantinople and Sinai.

The great walls were provided as a defence against, marauding tribes and still surround the Monastery today. Some restoration of the upper wall took place under the guidance of Napoleon who also offered his protection in 1798-1801.

The Monastery houses one of the most famous collections of Christian art and ancient manuscripts dating from as early as the fourth century AD through to the present day. The Codex Sinaiticus, now held in the British Museum, was originally part of St Catherine’s collection.

Despite its isolation, the site of the Burning Bush has drawn pilgrims throughout the centuries. Traditionally a pilgrimage has incorporated an act of repentance and here in Sinai pilgrims would have had to say their confession before stepping onto the Holy Mountain. They would pass through the Gate of St Stephen and find a confessor waiting by the Byzantine steps leading up to the summit.

Today the mountain is open to all, but with the hermitages and small walled gardens dotted around the mountain, some of which remain in use, there is still something of the ancient reverence. The local tribe of Bedouin (converted from

Christianity to Islam in the seventh century) are the descendants of the original builders of the Monastery.

Eutychios, Patriarch of Alexandria, in an early written source states that the Emperor Justinian ordered 200 families from Pontus and Alexandria to work in the service of the monks. To this day the small mountain tribe cares for the Monastery and its surroundings.

The Legend of St Catherine

St Catherine of Alexandria lived in the early fourth century and was martyred by the Emperor Maximinus in 305 AD for refusing to denounce Christianity. To add to the Emperor’s fury, when he sent his philosophers to argue with her they too returned converted to the Christian faith.

She is sometimes known as St Catherine of the Wheel due to the torture inflicted on her. She was finally beheaded. After her execution tradition claims her body vanished. According to the legend, the angels transported it to the peak of the highest mountain in Sinai, now called St Catherine’s. About five centuries later, guided by a dream, monks of the monastery built by Justinian found her body, brought it down from the mountain and placed it in a golden casket in the church. Part of the remains were taken by Crusaders back to Europe, but what was left still stands in the casket behind the lconostasis screen inside the sanctuary area.

Codex Sinaiticus

The Codex Sinaiticus is a 4th century manuscript of the New Testament. It is the oldest extant version of the Gospels and was originally housed here in Sinai at St Catherine’s Monastery. There was much controversy over the manuscript when it was rediscovered in the Monastery by a scholar named Tischendorf. The monks claim he was lent the manuscript, honour bound to return it to them. It was never returned.

It was eventually bought after the first World War from Russia by the British Museum and can be seen there today on display.

About the Author

Steve Phillips learnt about the Sinai desert from Dr Emma Loveridge who is the founder of the specialist tour operator Wind, Sand & Stars. The company received a highly coveted environmental award early in its life for its ethical working partnership with the Bedouin tribes in South Sinai, Egypt. Dr Emma Loveridge has a PhD in early Byzantine art and manuscripts from the University of Cambridge.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – St Catherine’s Story and the Monastery

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The Romantic Idealization of American Indians in Early American Literature

Uncas, chief of the Mohegan tribe, executes Miantonomoh of the Narragansett tribe after a battle in (what is now) Norwich, Connecticut, United States in 1643 via Wikipedia

by Mary Arnold

One of the major controversies in the acquisition and development of America as an independent nation was the dilemma concerning the people who were already here. As a Christian people, it would have been sinful for our founders to just ‘take’ the land from other peoples. Therefore, the settlers and the succeeding generations began romanticizing the Indians, depicting them as either noble children of nature in need of civilization and Christianity or as ferocious, demonic savages in need of extermination. Neither view exhibited the reality of the Native Americans. From the earliest American writings, this image of the Indian, either as inherently noble or inherently evil, has persisted in our culture to the present. In Columbus’ letter regarding his first voyage to the Americas, he describes a virtual Garden of Eden. While he does not describe the natives he encounters in great detail, it is safe to assume that he did not find them to be menacing or ferocious savages based on the content of his letter. Columbus states that he “sent two men inland to learn if there were a king or great cities” and that the men traveled for three days and “found an infinity of small hamlets and people without number” (Norton 26). Surely Columbus would not have sent two men among the Indians if he had any indication that the Indians would not be peaceful and welcoming.

However, in his letter to Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus’ view of the natives has changed. In pleading his plight to his sovereigns, Columbus says he is in “daily expectation of death” and “encompassed about by a million savages, full of cruelty” (Norton 28). These contrary and romanticized depictions of the Native Americans would be picked up and even expanded on by later American writers.

William Bradford carried on peaceful and friendly relations with the Indians that lived where they set up Plymouth Plantation. The Pilgrims made a treaty with the chief Massasoit which continued “24 years” (Norton 86). Additionally, Bradford transfers romantic qualities to Squanto, an Indian who had been captured and taken to England. Bradford says of Squanto that there are “scarce any left alive besides himself” which instigates the “vanishing Indian” myth that Cooper later uses for his narrative (Norton 87). Bradford also idealizes Squanto by referring to him as a “special instrument sent of God for [the Pilgrims] good” (Norton 87). The writings of John Smith further emphasize the ambiguous feelings of the Europeans towards the Indians. When he and his men were in danger of starving to death, Smith describes how God “changed the hearts of the savages” so as to provide food for the Europeans (Norton 45). The indication here is clear: that the Indians are ‘savage’ by nature but all that is needed to make them good people is Christianity. When Smith is later taken hostage by Powhatan and his tribe, he narrates how he was “kindly feasted and well used” (Norton 49). But despite this, Smith remains fearful of
the Indians, no matter how much he tries to make himself sound bold and unafraid. The fact that he is afraid of the Indians and their personal nature is seen through Smith’s description of the Indians in langauge and imagery that is horrifying. He depicts them as “devils,” “fiends,” having a “hellish voice” and entertaining him with “strange and fearful conjurations” (Norton 50). Smith is definitely romanticizing the Indians by making them seem as if they are demons from Hell.

These three romantic idealizations of the Indian (noble warrior, bloodthirsty savage, and vanishing Indian) converge in James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans. As the title suggests, the tribe of the Mohicans has been so very diminished that only two remain, Chingachgook and his son Uncas. This exhibits the “vanishing Indian” mythology. The tribes of Indians that are the central focus in Cooper’s narrative are the Mohicans (Delawares) and the Iroquois (Mohawks). These tribes are depicted in the characters of Chingachgook and Uncas (Mohicans), and Magua, who even though was born a Huron, has became a member of the Iroquois federation. According to Cooper, both of these tribes are vanishing due to the “inroads of civilization” (Cooper 6). Chingachgook tells Hawkeye when his son Uncas dies “there will no longer be any of the blood of the Sagamores” because Uncas is the last of the pure blood Mohicans (Cooper33). As for the Six Nations of the Iroquois, Cooper tells the reader in a footnote that:

“There are remnants of all these people still living on lands secured to them by the state; but they are daily disappearing, either by deaths or by removals to scenes more congenial to their habits. In a short time there will be no remains of these extraordinary people, in those regions in which they dwelt for centuries” (Cooper 20).

Thus does Cooper romanticize the idea of the “vanishing Indian myth.” In his introduction to the first edition of his novel, Cooper describes the “native warriors of America” in the following manner: “In war, he is daring, boastful, cunning, ruthless, self-denying, and self-devoted; in peace, just, generous, hospitable, revengeful, superstitious, modest, and commonly chaste” (Cooper 5).

This type of description of Indians denies their individuality in human emotions and characteristics. As such, it romanticizes them by assigning them inviolable personality traits. Of the narrative’s three main Indian characters, Chingachgook and Uncas are idealized as the “noble warriors” and Magua is romanticized as the “bloodthirsty savage.” None of these characters are presented in a realistic, humanistic fashion. They are spoken of in langauge that portrays them as highly exalted or irretrievably degraded.

In his first appearance in the novel, Chingachgook is seen seated on a log, engaged in a debate with Hawkeye. Chingachgook uses “calm and expressive gestures” and the posture of his body to “heighten” the effect of his “earnest langauge” (Cooper 29). He has reached middle age, but has no “symptoms of decay” that would suggest a lessening of “his manhood” (Cooper 29). Furthermore, even though Chingachgook is habitually suspicious, he is “not only without guile” but is possessed of “sturdy honesty” (Cooper 30). These physical and mental traits provide us with the classic image of the strong and stoic Indian warrior, one who is brave and fearless when necessary but kind and calm also. Chingachgook’s son Uncas is idealized even more than his father is.

Uncas is “fearless”, “dignified,” “noble,” “proud,” “determined,” “brave,” and “constant” (Cooper 53). Even Alice, who is fearful of all Indians, says of Uncas that she “could sleep in peace with such a fearless and generous looking youth for her sentinel” (Cooper 53). And Duncan allows that Uncas is a “rare and brilliant instance of those natural qualities” existing in Indians (Cooper 53). This portrayal of Uncas
suggests that he is not like others of his tribe or race; that he is somehow exalted above the rest. Cooper plays up this exaltation of Uncas by revealing that he is descended from a noble chief (implying that Uncas’ blood is ‘royal’) later in the novel when Uncas is about to be burned at the stake (Cooper 309).

When Uncas is sentenced to death, his friends react in various ways: Duncan struggles to get free, Hawkeye anxiously looks around for a way to escape, and Cora throws herself at Tamenund’s feet to plead for mercy for Uncas (Cooper 309). Only Uncas remains calm and serene. He watches the preparations for the fire with a “steady eye” and does not resist when the other Indians come to seize him (Cooper 309). One gets the impression that if Uncas had not been spared by the discovery of his tortoise tattoo, he would have went to his death calmly without saying one word to save himself. This is a highly idealized portrait of a person, not so would we expect someone to act in this particular circumstance no matter how brave the person was.

At the opposite side of human nature, Cooper romanticizes the character of Magua as intrinsically evil and depraved. Other than being brave and fearless, Magua has no qualities that would be considered good as possessing. Magua is described as having the “characteristic stoicism” of his race, but his countenance exhibits a “sullen fierceness” (Cooper 17). Further Magua’s expression is “cunning,” “savage,” “repulsive,” and having an eye “which [glistens] like a fiery star” (Cooper 18). Alice is afraid of Magua, based on his physical appearance, and refers to him as a “spectre” inhabiting the woods (Cooper 20). Cora tends to give Magua the benefit of the doubt, even though she first looks upon him with “pity, admiration, and horror” (Cooper 19). Even Duncan, who says he knows Magua well and trusts him, tells Alice not to show any distrust or fear to Magua, or she may “invite the danger [she] appears to apprehend” (Cooper 21). This admonition to Alice displays Duncan’s tendency to equate Magua with some species of wild animal, which will attack when sensing fear.

The idealization of Indians in Last of the Mohicans exhibits the period’s ambivalence towards the first inhabitants of the Americas. The colonists tended to either romanticize them as children of God or nature, or as savage, brutal heathens. This attitude towards the Indians began with Columbus and, in some degree, still exists today.

Sources

Norton Anthology of American Literature

The Last of the Mohicans

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